Yemen is uniquely positioned at the crossroads of Asia and Africa. Historically, this strategic location has made the country an important meeting point for multiple civilizations, resulting in a unique and dynamic landscape of intangible cultural heritage, expressed through rich oral traditions, intricate social practices, and diverse artistic expressions. To this day, rituals, festivals, customs, traditions, and tribal and communal norms continue to shape the daily lives of Yemenis, forming a living cultural heritage that is passed down through generations. The wide range of Arabic dialects spoken in Yemen, alongside indigenous languages such as Mehri and Soqotri, which are still in use today, has given rise to a rich oral and written tradition that preserves century-old customs through poetry, proverbs, and folktales.
Dance, singing, and music, too, are deeply embedded in Yemen’s cultural fabric, with each region having its own distinctive musical and vocal traditions. The legacy of Sana’ani music and Hadrami dan, for instance, have been inscribed on UNESCO’s Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Yemenis’ artistic expressions are also evident in their handicrafts and the quality of their craftsmanship. These skills are often passed down through generations, often within families that specialize in specific crafts, such as the making of jambiyyas, the traditional daggers worn by Yemeni men. A high level of artistry is also evident in the construction of Yemen’s iconic mud-brick architecture, particularly in Hadramawt and the historic buildings of Old Sana’a. Yemenis’ traditional knowledge, rooted in observations of natural processes and the environment, continues to guide rural communities, particularly in fields such as traditional medicine, sustainable agriculture, and agricultural astronomy.
Today, this vast wealth of intangible cultural heritage is being undermined, and threats to its survival are being overlooked. Armed groups are increasingly attempting to erase the cultural heritage of Yemeni communities. The displacement of thousands of Yemenis from their ancestral lands threatens to weaken the continuity of century-old legacies and practices, and the country’s fragile and fragmented institutional capacity hinders efforts to both value and protect this precious heritage.
A War on Culture
Over the past decade, ongoing conflict and unrest have taken a heavy toll on the country’s cultural traditions. This includes the systematic plundering of institutions dedicated to preserving this heritage, such as the looting of the Yemeni Music Heritage Center in Sana’a, which housed some of Yemen’s oldest recordings. Radio stations across the country have also been targeted, many of which held valuable archives of Yemeni music. These stations have faced attacks from various warring parties, including the Houthi group (Ansar Allah) in Sana’a and Al-Qaeda in Mukalla. Cultural spaces, such as the Cairo Citadel, which once housed a traditional crafts center, were repurposed as military barracks. Museums across the country have been destroyed as collateral damage in bombing campaigns, and important initiatives like the House of Folklore, established by Arwa al-Othman in Sana’a, have been attacked.
The profound impact of war on living cultural heritage is rarely addressed. Since the onset of conflict, each warring faction has sought to assert its legitimacy by imposing a uniform culture on all segments of society. This has been done by eliminating practices that underpin cultural, religious, and ethnic identities. In Houthi-controlled areas, such attempts at distortion are rife. Examples include criminalizing singing and music, harassing artists, and issuing laws and directives related to the culture and identity of other groups, such as imposing specific dress codes, imposing regulations on wedding celebrations, and banning certain religious practices like the Tarawih prayers. These were banned on the grounds that they were a manifestation of Wahhabi influence in Yemen.
While Houthi authorities seek to eradicate certain practices, they also work to reinforce others, primarily by imposing distinct cultural, religious, and ethnic practices that reinforce their own identity. For instance, the Houthis have revived elements of intangible cultural heritage that were nearly extinct and reintroduced them in a distorted form to strengthen their rule. A striking example is the popular celebration of the Prophet’s Birthday as an organized, large-scale official event. In the past, the event had a spiritual character, marked by gatherings of remembrance (dhikr) held in mosques or privately in homes. The Houthis have turned this celebration into an official, large-scale event and organized street festivals focused on mobilization. This has also been accompanied by their revival of religious shrines that had been inactive or prohibited, such as the Al-Aiderous shrine in Aden and the Ibn Alwan shrine in Taiz. The group has also transformed traditional Zamil poetry into mobilizing anthems.
Intangible Heritage in Exile
Further threatening the disruption of Yemen’s social fabric is the extensive displacement taking place. The large-scale migration of Yemeni communities due to war has significantly disrupted their connection to their heritage, severing ties with the ancestral lands that are integral to their cultural identity. This displacement has changed Yemen’s demographic landscape, often leading to cultural tensions between local populations and those who have been displaced. There are growing fears on both sides of losing their identities or having an unfamiliar culture imposed upon them. The displacement of women, who have traditionally played a key role in preserving domestic and community practices in Yemen, has considerably weakened the continuity of this heritage. The war has also led to emigration, primarily among youth, who will likely face a future disconnection from their heritage and the loss of cultural transmission. This is in addition to the emigration of bearers of cultural heritage, including folk artists, visual artists, skilled craftsmen, and tribal elders. Many researchers and specialists in safeguarding intangible cultural heritage have also emigrated.
There have been attempts and projects to create a cultural community in the diaspora. Yemenis abroad have opened traditional restaurants and shops selling traditional clothing, handmade goods, and local items such as incense, Taiz cheese, and traditional ghee. However, these ventures are often dominated by commercial interests, which affects the authenticity of the cultural elements. Influenced by supply and demand, one finds traditional clothing with a modern twist, or popular dishes served in the style of international cuisine. Furthermore, traditional industries and crafts lose much of their authenticity due to the unavailability of natural materials sourced from Yemen. Even customs and traditions are ultimately influenced by the host society’s culture.
The 2003 UNESCO Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage
In 2006, Yemen ratified the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003). The ratification was formalized through the issuance of Law No. (9) of 2006, and the Convention was signed on behalf of Yemen by the Ministry of Culture’s Undersecretary for Works and Intellectual Property. In implementing the Convention’s provisions, a decision was issued in 2014 to appoint an Undersecretary for the Intangible Cultural Heritage Sector within the Ministry of Culture; however, the sector’s activities have not been effectively implemented.
Article 16 of the Convention stipulates that, in order to ensure greater visibility of intangible cultural heritage, raise awareness of its significance, and encourage dialogue that respects cultural diversity, the Intergovernmental Committee shall establish, maintain, and publish a Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, based on proposals submitted by States Parties. The Convention further clarifies that, for an element to be inscribed on the Representative List, it must be present within the territory of the submitting state, practiced by communities over generations, transmitted across time, and fulfill a recognized social function within the community.
Because of the war, Yemen has lost the opportunity to register several elements that constitute a core part of its cultural heritage. These elements have instead been ascribed to neighboring countries, either as national or joint files, without Yemen’s participation.
- Knowledge and practices related to cultivating Khawlani coffee beans: Inscribed by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on the Representative List in 2022. Although Saudi Arabia initially proposed submitting a joint file with Yemen, this did not materialize.
- Harees, a traditional dish consisting of crushed wheat cooked with meat: Inscribed in 2023 as a joint file between the United Arab Emirates and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, despite the dish’s widespread presence in multiple regions of Yemen, including Hadramawt and Tihama
- Semsemiah, instrument crafting and playing: Inscribed in 2024 as a joint file between Egypt and Saudi Arabia, notwithstanding academic studies confirming that the Semsemiah was transmitted to Africa through Yemen.
- Arabic coffee, a symbol of generosity: Inscribed in 2024 as a joint file involving the United Arab Emirates, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, and Jordan (notably excluding Yemen), the historical country of origin of coffee.
- Zaffa traditions (wedding processions): Inscribed as a joint file involving the United Arab Emirates, Djibouti, the Comoros, Iraq, Jordan, Mauritania, and Somalia. Although the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) requested Yemen’s participation, the relevant Yemeni authorities were unable to fulfill the procedural requirements.
While they have been excluded from a number of initiatives, Yemeni elements of intangible cultural heritage are inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
- Sana’ani singing/songs (2008).
- Date palms: knowledge, skills, traditions, and practices (joint file) (2019).
- Arabic calligraphy: knowledge, skills, and practices (joint file) (2021).
- Arts, skills, and practices associated with engraving on precious metals (joint file) (2023).
- Henna: rituals, aesthetics, and social practices (joint file) (2024).
In December, Hadrami dan music, submitted by the Hadramawt Foundation, was added to Yemen’s list of intangible cultural heritage.
Protecting Prized Heritage: Obstacles and Opportunities
In 2002, the Ministry of Culture established the Heritage and Cultural Development Fund. According to its founding decree, the Fund’s objectives include “supporting the establishment of local and international exhibitions, activities, and cultural events related to Yemen’s cultural, civilizational, and historical heritage,” and “contributing to the support of activities of popular organizations, associations, and centers involved in the collection, protection, and preservation of cultural and civilizational heritage.”
By 2014, the Heritage Fund supported over 100 associations and civil society organizations. This support ceased completely with the start of the war, leading to the suspension of activities for most of these institutions due to a lack of funding. Some organizations that managed to survive and continue their work were then shut down in the later stages of the war due to widespread harassment, including pressure to align their work with the Houthis ideological orientations and diktats. Civil society organizations, working to safeguard cultural heritage, must obtain permits from security authorities, especially in Houthi-controlled areas, and face difficulties securing funding from donors. When funding is obtained, security approval is still required, and activities are monitored, often leading to their distortion to align with the agendas of political and cultural groups.
The Social Fund for Development (SFD), established in 1997 under the Prime Minister’s Office, supported intangible heritage projects submitted by institutions and organizations through its Heritage Unit. It also conducted capacity-building courses and workshops for institutions, organizations, and individuals. The SFD also ran the Small and Micro Enterprise Development Program, which has supported institutions dedicated to traditional crafts. The Unit’s activities ceased at the beginning of the war, but it later resumed some of its functions through UNESCO’s “Cash for Work” program, which has financed a range of projects related to safeguarding intangible cultural heritage.
Over the decades, numerous international laws and conventions have been enacted to protect cultural heritage from the impacts of conflict. Yet, many of these instruments have largely focused on tangible cultural heritage, such as the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, while giving little to no attention to the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage.
In Yemen’s case, the official institutions responsible for safeguarding intangible cultural heritage—foremost among them the Intangible Cultural Heritage Sector within the Ministry of Culture—should undertake concrete safeguarding measures, including developing national inventories covering the full range of Yemen’s intangible cultural heritage. For those that have already been inscribed by other states, Yemen can submit requests to join those files so that they become joint inscriptions, while simultaneously preparing and submitting dedicated nomination files for Yemeni heritage elements to UNESCO’s lists. Such steps are essential for preserving this heritage for future generations of Yemenis, wherever they are, and for ensuring that these unique cultural practices are not lost forever.
This publication was produced as part of the second phase of the Yemen Peace Forum (YPF), a Sana’a Center initiative that seeks to empower the next generation of Yemeni youth and civil society activists to engage in critical national issues. The YPF is funded by the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.